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Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was developed by the Supreme Court through judicial innovation, relaxing the rule of ______ to allow public-spirited persons to file petitions for enforcement of rights of disadvantaged groups.
- stare decisis
- locus standi
- natural justice
- separation of powers
Answer: locus standi
PIL evolution: S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981): SC relaxed locus standi (personal injury requirement), allowing any citizen/public-spirited organization to file petition for enforcement of rights of persons unable to approach court due to poverty, ignorance, or social disadvantage. Transformed judicial role from dispute resolution to social justice delivery.
Under Article 226, High Courts can issue writs not only for enforcement of Fundamental Rights but also for enforcement of ______ rights.
- constitutional
- legal
- natural
- moral
Answer: legal
Article 226(1): HC can issue writs for: (a) enforcement of Fundamental Rights (like SC), OR (b) 'for any other purpose' i.e., enforcement of legal rights (statutory/common law rights). Thus, HC's writ jurisdiction is substantively wider. However, SC's jurisdiction is nationwide while HC's is territorial. Complementary roles in rights protection.
The writ of Certiorari can be issued on grounds of error of law ______, jurisdictional error, or violation of principles of natural justice.
- of fact
- apparent on the face of record
- of procedure
- of evidence
Answer: apparent on the face of record
Certiorari grounds: (a) Lack/excess of jurisdiction, (b) Error of law apparent on face of record (not re-appreciation of evidence), (c) Violation of natural justice (audi alteram partem, nemo judex in causa sua), (d) Fraud/collusion. Issued by higher court to quash order of lower court/tribunal. Ensures judicial/quasi-judicial bodies act within legal bounds.
Under Article 359, the President may suspend the right to move any court for enforcement of Fundamental Rights during National Emergency, except for rights under Articles ______.
- 14 and 19
- 19 and 21
- 20 and 21
- 21 and 32
Answer: 20 and 21
Article 359(1A), inserted by 44th Amendment (1978): Presidential order suspending FR enforcement cannot apply to Articles 20 (protection in conviction: no ex post facto law, no double jeopardy, no self-incrimination) and 21 (life and personal liberty). These core rights remain enforceable even during Emergency, protecting citizens from executive excesses.
The writ of Quo Warranto ('by what authority') is issued to inquire into the legality of a person's claim to a ______ office.
- private
- public
- temporary
- contractual
Answer: public
Quo Warranto: Issued to restrain a person from acting in a public office to which they are not entitled. Conditions: (a) Office must be public and created by Constitution/statute, (b) Person must be asserting claim to office, (c) Claim must be without legal authority. Protects public from usurpers of official positions.
The writ of Habeas Corpus, meaning 'to have the body', is issued to secure the release of a person who has been ______ detained.
- legally
- illegally
- temporarily
- preventively
Answer: illegally
Habeas Corpus: Issued to produce a detained person before court to examine legality of detention. Can be issued against public authorities AND private individuals. Available under Articles 32 & 226. Not issued if: (a) detention is lawful, (b) proceeding is for contempt of court/legislature, (c) detention by competent court. Primary safeguard against arbitrary arrest.
The Supreme Court has held that while Parliament can amend the Constitution, it cannot alter the ______ of the Constitution which includes democracy, secularism, federalism, and judicial review.
- text
- spirit
- basic structure
- preamble
Answer: basic structure
Kesavananda Bharati (1973) and subsequent cases: Parliament's amending power under Article 368 is limited by basic structure doctrine. Basic structure includes: supremacy of Constitution, republican/democratic form, secularism, federalism, separation of powers, judicial review, rule of law, free/fair elections, individual dignity. Ensures Constitution's core identity survives political changes.
A Constitutional Amendment Bill can be introduced in either House of Parliament by a ______, and not by the President or through private members.
- Minister
- Member of Parliament
- Speaker
- Leader of Opposition
Answer: Minister
Article 368(1): Constitutional Amendment Bill can be introduced in either House only by a Minister (government bill), not by private member. Requires prior recommendation of President only for amendments affecting federal provisions (Article 368 proviso). Ensures executive responsibility for constitutional changes while allowing either House to initiate.
The Preamble of the Indian Constitution has been amended only once, by the ______ Amendment Act, 1976, adding the words 'Socialist', 'Secular', and 'Integrity'.
- 24th
- 42nd
- 44th
- 73rd
Answer: 42nd
42nd Amendment (1976): Added three words to Preamble: 'Socialist' (mixed economy, welfare state), 'Secular' (equal respect for all religions, no State religion), 'Integrity' (national unity beyond sovereignty). Preamble is part of Constitution (Kesavananda case) and amendable under Article 368, but basic structure cannot be altered.
The 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019 introduced ______ percent reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in education and public employment, excluding SCs/STs/OBCs.
- 5
- 10
- 15
- 20
Answer: 10
103rd Amendment (2019): (a) Inserted Article 15(6) allowing State to make special provisions for EWS advancement in education, (b) Inserted Article 16(6) for EWS reservation in public employment. Provides 10% reservation for EWS among forward castes (excluding those covered under Articles 15(4), 15(5), 16(4)). Upheld by Supreme Court in Janhit Abhiyan case (2022) by 3:2 majority.
The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016 introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) by inserting Article ______ for GST Council and amending Seventh Schedule.
- 246A
- 268A
- 279A
- 368A
Answer: 279A
101st Amendment (2016): (a) Inserted Article 246A giving Parliament/State Legislatures concurrent power to make GST laws, (b) Inserted Article 279A for GST Council (chaired by Union FM), (c) Amended Seventh Schedule (Union List, State List, Concurrent List) to subsume multiple indirect taxes. Landmark fiscal federalism reform creating 'One Nation, One Tax'.
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992 gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies by adding Parts ______ and IXA respectively.
- VIII
- IX
- X
- XI
Answer: IX
73rd Amendment (1992): Added Part IX (Articles 243-243O) for Panchayats. 74th Amendment (1992): Added Part IXA (Articles 243P-243ZG) for Municipalities. Together institutionalized democratic decentralization: mandatory elections, reservations, State Finance Commissions, functional devolution (11th/12th Schedules). Transformed grassroots governance in India.
The 24th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971 was enacted to overcome the Supreme Court's judgment in ______ case (1967), which held Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights.
- Golaknath
- Kesavananda Bharati
- Minerva Mills
- Indira Gandhi
Answer: Golaknath
Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967): SC held Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights (Part III). 24th Amendment (1971) added clause to Article 13 clarifying 'law' does not include constitutional amendment under Article 368, and added clause to Article 368 affirming Parliament's amending power including FRs. Set stage for Kesavananda Bharati compromise.
Amendments affecting federal provisions like election of President, extent of executive power, Supreme Court/High Courts, distribution of legislative powers, representation of States in Parliament, or Article 368 itself require ratification by legislatures of not less than ______ of States.
- one-third
- one-half
- two-thirds
- three-fourths
Answer: one-half
Article 368(2) proviso: Amendments affecting federal structure require ratification by legislatures of not less than half of States (by simple majority). Protects States' interests by ensuring Union cannot unilaterally alter federal balance. Examples: 7th Amendment (State reorganisation), 73rd/74th Amendments (local government).
The President can revoke any type of Emergency proclamation at any time by a subsequent proclamation, without requiring ______ approval.
- Parliamentary
- Cabinet
- Judicial
- State Legislature
Answer: Parliamentary
Articles 352(2)(b), 356(1)(c), 360(2)(b): President can revoke Emergency proclamation anytime by subsequent proclamation. No Parliamentary approval needed for revocation (only for imposition/extension). Enables executive to restore normalcy promptly when crisis abates, without legislative delay.
The report of the Governor under Article 356 for imposition of President's Rule is not binding on the ______, who makes the final satisfaction.
- Prime Minister
- President
- Chief Justice
- Parliament
Answer: President
Article 356(1): President may act on Governor's report 'or otherwise'. Governor's report is important but not binding; President forms independent satisfaction based on all available material. However, SR Bommai case mandated that satisfaction must be based on objective material, not subjective opinion, and is subject to judicial review.
President's Rule under Article 356 can remain in force for a maximum period of ______ years, subject to Parliamentary approval every 6 months and Election Commission certification after one year.
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
Answer: 3
Article 356(5), inserted by 44th Amendment: Maximum duration of President's Rule is 3 years. Extensions beyond 1 year require: (a) National Emergency in India or that State, AND (b) Election Commission certification that elections cannot be held. Prevents indefinite suspension of State democracy; ensures return to normalcy.
National Emergency under Article 352 has been proclaimed ______ times in India's history: 1962 (China war), 1971 (Indo-Pak war), and 1975 (internal disturbance).
- two
- three
- four
- five
Answer: three
National Emergency proclaimed thrice: (1) Oct 1962 - China aggression (lifted Jan 1968), (2) Dec 1971 - Indo-Pak war (lifted Mar 1977), (3) Jun 1975 - 'internal disturbance' (lifted Mar 1977). 1975 Emergency was controversial; led to 44th Amendment safeguards. State Emergency (Article 356) used over 120 times; Financial Emergency never used.
In which landmark case did the Supreme Court hold that imposition of President's Rule under Article 356 is subject to judicial review?
- Golaknath case (1967)
- Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
- SR Bommai case (1994)
- Indira Sawhney case (1992)
Answer: SR Bommai case (1994)
SR Bommai v. Union of India (1994): 9-judge bench held: (a) Presidential satisfaction under Article 356 is not absolute; subject to judicial review, (b) Proclamation can be struck down if mala fide or based on irrelevant grounds, (c) Assembly dissolution should not be automatic, (d) Floor test is primary method to test majority. Landmark judgment curbing misuse of Article 356.
Under Article 356, President's Rule can be imposed in a State if the President is satisfied, on receipt of report from the ______ or otherwise, that State government cannot function per Constitution.
- Chief Minister
- Governor
- Chief Justice
- Speaker
Answer: Governor
Article 356(1): President may issue Proclamation if satisfied (on Governor's report or otherwise) that State government cannot be carried on per Constitution. 'Or otherwise' allows President to act on other information, but SR Bommai case (1994) mandated objective material and judicial review to prevent arbitrary use.