GK Questions

Article 275 empowers Parliament to make grants-in-aid to States that are in need of financial assistance, particularly for welfare of Scheduled Tribes or development of backward areas. These grants are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India (not voted). The Finance Commission recommends the principles for such grants under Article 280.

Article 338 establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) as a constitutional body. The 89th Amendment Act, 2003 bifurcated the earlier combined commission into separate NCSC (Article 338) and National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST, Article 338A). Both have powers of a civil court for investigating safeguards implementation.

Article 213 empowers the Governor to promulgate Ordinances when the State Legislature is not in session, if satisfied that circumstances require immediate action. Ordinances have the same force as Acts but must be approved by the Legislature within 6 weeks of reassembly, or they lapse. The Governor's satisfaction is subject to judicial review for mala fides.

The Estimates Committee has 30 members, all elected from Lok Sabha by proportional representation. It examines estimates included in the Budget and suggests economies, improvements, and administrative reforms. Unlike PAC, it cannot question policy, only examine expenditure efficiency. Its reports are advisory but carry significant weight.

In Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018), a five-judge bench unanimously held that Section 377 IPC (criminalizing 'carnal intercourse against the order of nature') violated: Article 14 (equality), Article 15 (non-discrimination), Article 19 (freedom of expression), and Article 21 (privacy, dignity, autonomy). This landmark judgment affirmed LGBTQ+ rights as Fundamental Rights.

The 44th Amendment Act, 1978 was passed by the Janata Party government to undo authoritarian changes made during the 1975-77 Emergency. Key reversals: (1) Restored judicial review of emergency proclamations, (2) Made 'armed rebellion' (not 'internal disturbance') the ground for National Emergency, (3) Protected Articles 20-21 from suspension during Emergency, (4) Restored Parliament's term to 5 years.

Paragraph 4 of the Tenth Schedule provides an exception to disqualification: if 2/3rd of a legislature party's members merge with another party, neither the merging members nor those who remain face disqualification. This provision balances party discipline with democratic realignment, though the 91st Amendment (2003) removed the 'split' exception (1/3rd members).

Article 345 empowers State Legislatures to adopt any language(s) in use in the State or Hindi as the official language for state-level administration. For example, Tamil Nadu uses Tamil, Kerala uses Malayalam, while some states like Karnataka use both Kannada and English. However, communication with the Union must be in Hindi or English (Article 346).

Article 200 gives the Governor three options on State Bills: (1) Give assent (Bill becomes law), (2) Withhold assent (Bill fails), (3) Reserve for President's consideration (mandatory for certain Bills affecting High Court, compulsory for Bills derogating from High Court powers). The Governor can also return a Bill (not Money Bill) for reconsideration, but must assent if re-passed.

Article 324 originally envisaged a multi-member Election Commission, but for decades it functioned as a single-member body (Chief Election Commissioner). After the 1993 amendment to the Election Commission Act, it became a three-member body (1 CEC + 2 ECs). Decisions are taken by majority vote, with the CEC having casting vote in case of tie.

Epistolary jurisdiction is a unique feature of Indian PIL where the Supreme Court/High Courts can treat letters, postcards, or newspaper reports as writ petitions if they reveal violations of fundamental rights of disadvantaged groups. This relaxes procedural formalities to enhance access to justice, pioneered in cases like Bandhua Mukti Morcha (1984).

The landmark S.R. Bommai case (1994) established strict guidelines for imposing President's Rule under Article 356: (1) Floor test is the primary method to test majority, (2) Presidential proclamation is subject to judicial review, (3) State Assembly can only be dissolved after Parliament approves the proclamation, (4) Secularism is part of basic structure. This curbed arbitrary use of Article 356.

Cut Motions (Rule 173 of Lok Sabha Rules) allow MPs to reduce a Demand for Grants by Rs. 100 to express disapproval of policy, economy, or specific grievances. Types: Policy Cut (oppose policy), Economy Cut (reduce expenditure), Token Cut (specific grievance). While rarely passed, they enable legislative scrutiny of executive spending.

In Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979) and subsequent cases, the Supreme Court held that free legal aid to indigent accused is part of 'reasonable, fair, and just procedure' under Article 21. This was later codified in Article 39A (Directive Principle) and the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, establishing free legal aid infrastructure.

The 103rd Amendment Act, 2019 added Articles 15(6) and 16(6) to provide 10% reservation in education and government jobs for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) among citizens not covered under existing reservations (SC/ST/OBC). It amended the definition of 'backward classes' to exclude EWS, sparking debates on equality and reservation policy.

Paragraph 6 of the Tenth Schedule empowers the Speaker/Chairman of the House to decide on disqualification petitions. In Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992), the Supreme Court upheld the Speaker's role but made their decision subject to judicial review on grounds of mala fides, perversity, or violation of constitutional mandates. This balances legislative autonomy with constitutional supremacy.

The Eighth Schedule originally listed 14 languages in 1950. Through amendments: 71st (1992) added Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali; 92nd (2003) added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali; 96th (2011) replaced 'Oriya' with 'Odia'. Total now: 22 scheduled languages. These languages can be used in official communications and for competitive exams.

Article 371A grants special provisions to Nagaland: (1) No Act of Parliament on Naga religious/social practices, customary law, civil/criminal justice involving customary law, or land ownership/transfer applies unless the Nagaland Legislative Assembly so decides. This protects Naga tribal identity and autonomy within the Indian Union.

Article 265 establishes the principle of 'no taxation without law'. It states: 'No tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of law.' This ensures that taxation requires legislative sanction, protecting citizens from arbitrary executive taxation. It applies to both Union and State taxes.

The NHRC is a statutory body established under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, not a constitutional body. Constitutional bodies are explicitly created by the Constitution (e.g., Election Commission under Article 324). The NHRC investigates human rights violations but its recommendations are not binding, though they carry moral and political weight.