The Supreme Court has interpreted Article 21 to include right to clean environment, applying principles like sustainable development, precautionary principle, and polluter pays to balance development with ecological sustainability.

Environmental rights under Article 21: (a) Subhash Kumar (1991): Right to life includes enjoyment of pollution-free water and air, (b) MC Mehta cases: Established absolute liability for hazardous industries, public trust doctrine for natural resources, (c) Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum (1996): Recognized sustainable development, precautionary principle, polluter pays principle as part of environmental law under Article 21/48A, (d) Applications: (i) Industrial regulation: Closure of polluting units, emission standards, (ii) Forest conservation: Restrictions on mining, logging in ecologically sensitive areas, (iii) Climate litigation: Emerging cases challenging coal projects, emission norms based on right to healthy environment, (e) Institutional mechanisms: National Green Tribunal (NGT) for expedited environmental dispute resolution, (f) Balance: Development needs vs. ecological sustainability; proportionality test ensures restrictions justified, not arbitrary. Illustrates adaptive constitutionalism: Article 21 interpreted to address emerging challenges like climate change.